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Overview

The Yoruba tale tortoise is not simply a slow animal waiting to win a race. Ijapa devises social schemes, bargains for food and takes advantage of opportunities that stronger characters overlook. His ingenuity can be admirable or destructive; a particular story may reward patience while another exposes a selfish trick.

Ogumefu’s collection includes several tortoise stories with different settings and outcomes, allowing readers to compare the character’s behavior rather than impose one moral. Relationships with neighbors and family make the tales more than animal anecdotes. The animal’s shell or habits can acquire narrative explanations, but each explanation belongs to the account that tells it.

In Ogumefu’s Tortoise and the King, an elephant destroys crops and exhausts scarce water. Tortoise offers to catch it after the ruler promises his daughter as a reward. He conceals a pit beneath a splendid false throne and persuades the elephant that the country wants it as king. Once the hunters kill the trapped animal, the ruler refuses the promised marriage. Tortoise retaliates by recruiting field-mice and elves to carry away the next harvest, then negotiates both his marriage and recurring food for the raiders. This particular printed episode makes the trickster a manipulator of royal promises and agricultural obligations, not merely an animal who wins through speed or physical strength.

Ogumefu calls the character Tortoise in the English text; the title Ijapa situates this article within Yoruba tortoise storytelling without pretending that the English chapter uses that name. The nine selected stories, XXXII–XL, give incompatible fates and should be read as separate narratives. The king story ends with food promised twice a year, before the two harvests, rather than an unspecified one-time payment.

In Tortoise and Mr Fly, a sack connects two layers of theft. Mr Fly carries coins stolen from market drummers; Tortoise hides inside and steals from him. Fly exposes the hidden thief to a drummer, who beats the sack. He then deposits it at Tortoise’s home. Tortoise’s wife Nyanribo opens it publicly and discovers her bruised husband. A mocking song spreads, and the couple moves to another country. In Erin and Erinomi, Tortoise instead provokes Elephant and Hippopotamus with reports of each other’s boasting. Elephant thinks he is pulling a log from the river, while Hippopotamus thinks he is pulling down a tree. They actually pull opposite ends of the same rope. Tortoise escapes before they discover the trick.

Tortoise and the Three Deaths actually narrates three survivals. His shell protects him when enemies burn his house; a pool eventually dries in the sun; and treasure-seekers dig him out alive after his burial has been marked with bamboo. There are no three deaths followed by resurrection. The separate Crab story gives the opposite result. Tortoise and Crab fail to hurt one another through their shells and boast of their safety, but a boy captures them, cooks both and uses Tortoise’s shell for ornaments. The account then explains the hostility of their descendants.

Tortoise and the Cock turns a false warning into an opportunity to steal eggs. Tortoise tells the fowls that their owner will kill the first bird that crows or clucks, keeping them silent. The farmer’s wife, furious at their failure to provide eggs, kills the fowls. The human household eats their meat while Tortoise and Nyanribo enjoy the stolen eggs. In Tortoise and the Pigeon, refusal to share food instead brings retaliation. Pigeon drops Tortoise into water, but he lands on a crocodile and escapes. A later trick with a dead horse’s head leads Tortoise to claim that horses can be grown, and the king condemns him when the claim fails. Pigeon repents, brings birds to extinguish the execution fire with their wings, confesses, and obtains pardons for both. The tale ends with reconciliation rather than Tortoise’s execution.

The famine story Tortoise and the Whip Tree is more destructive. Tortoise secretly eats from a tree that gives food on command; Nyanribo discovers it and brings the children and cousins. He directs them to a second tree whose whips beat them to death. He subsequently entertains the king and his followers before exposing them to that tree too. This later company is beaten but is not said to die there. Hunted by the angry king, Tortoise hides until the ruler’s death, for which no cause is supplied, and emerges under a new king. The text does not revive his family.

In the final tale, Tortoise and the Rain, the trickster brokers a contract with the cloud for rain or sunshine in return for cowries. He takes clients’ money and uses performances involving his back or a spear to make himself appear responsible for the weather, while the cloud supplies it. He keeps the payments. When his family plans a journey, the offended cloud refuses his request for sunshine; he travels anyway and a flood drowns the whole family. This ending remains separate from the drying-pool escape in Three Deaths.

The collection’s preface explicitly frames its lessons through the author’s Christian outlook. That framing belongs to this 1929 publication and does not determine how every Yoruba teller or listener interprets the stories. Nyanribo’s appearances establish a narrative spouse in the named episodes, not one consistent family chronology across every ending.

Tortoise tricksterBargains and false social rolesNyanribo as spouse in named storiesBoth successful and defeated schemesContrasting deaths and survivals across tales
01

Origins & earliest records

M. I. Ogumefu’s Yoruba Legends (1929), Tortoise section and tales XXXII–XL, pp.63–87, is the selected English witness. The preface locates Yoruba communities in southern Nigeria and states the author’s religious framing. It does not date the beginnings of Yoruba tortoise storytelling or establish the earliest use of the name Ijapa.

02

Records & interpretation

The preface, Tortoise section introduction and all nine complete tales XXXII–XL were read. Chapter-level actions and endings are retained separately, including actual deaths, escapes and marriage. They document literary and oral-tradition representation rather than natural tortoise behavior or a biological genealogy.

In the literature

“Tortoise cautiously refused to do anything until the Princess became his bride.”
M. I. Ogumefu · Yoruba Legends
XXXII TORTOISE AND THE KING; paragraph beginning “Tortoise once again appeared in the palace and offered…”

Ogumefu’s Tortoise requires fulfilment of a promise; this text calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa.

“Tortoise quickly got out and took most of the money with him”
M. I. Ogumefu · Yoruba Legends
XXXIII TORTOISE AND MR. FLY; paragraph beginning “Mr. Fly laid his sack on the ground, and…”

Tortoise steals Mr. Fly’s receipts in tale XXXIII.

Selected bibliography

Documented works and useful reading. This is not a list of every appearance.

  1. 01

    Yoruba Legends — Tortoise section, pp.63–64; XXXII–XL, pp.65–87

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete nine-story sequence and preface read. English text calls the character Tortoise; individual locators follow.

  2. 02

    Yoruba Legends — XXXII: Tortoise and the King, pp.65–68

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  3. 03

    Yoruba Legends — XXXIII: Tortoise and Mr Fly, pp.68–71

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  4. 04

    Yoruba Legends — XXXIV: Erin and Erinomi (The Land- and Water-Elephants), pp.71–72

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  5. 05

    Yoruba Legends — XXXV: The Three Deaths of Tortoise, pp.73–74

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  6. 06

    Yoruba Legends — XXXVI: Tortoise and the Cock, pp.75–76

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  7. 07

    Yoruba Legends — XXXVII: Tortoise and Crab, pp.76–77

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  8. 08

    Yoruba Legends — XXXVIII: Tortoise and the Pigeon, pp.77–80

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  9. 09

    Yoruba Legends — XXXIX: Tortoise and the Whip Tree, pp.80–84

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  10. 10

    Yoruba Legends — XL: Tortoise and the Rain, pp.84–87

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    Complete selected narrative read; its ending is not merged with other tales.

  11. 11

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; tale XXXII, pp. 65–68; UK author-term status unverified.

  12. 12

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; tale XXXIII, pp. 68–71; UK author-term status unverified.

  13. 13

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXIV, Erin and Erinomi (the Land- and Water-Elephants), pp.71–72; author-term status unverified.

  14. 14

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXV, The Three Deaths of Tortoise, pp.73–74; author-term status unverified.

  15. 15

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXVI, Tortoise and the Cock, pp.74–76; author-term status unverified.

  16. 16

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXVII, Tortoise and Crab, pp.76–77; author-term status unverified.

  17. 17

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXVIII, Tortoise and Pigeon, pp.77–80; author-term status unverified.

  18. 18

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XXXIX, Tortoise and the Whip-tree, pp.80–84; author-term status unverified.

  19. 19

    Yoruba Legends

    M. I. Ogumefu · 1929

    London, 1929; XL, Tortoise and the Rain, pp.84–87; author-term status unverified.

Family & connections

A source-supported family tree or inspiration record has not yet been compiled for this profile. Related reading below indicates a connection in subject matter, not a proven lineage or creative influence.

Located primary passages

Specific passages supporting details in this entry, grouped by their published witness.

Yoruba Legends — XXXII: Tortoise and the King, pp.65–68

London, 1929; XXXII, Tortoise and the King, pp.65–68.

  1. Royal promise-breaking prompts Tortoise’s retaliation and a negotiated harvest settlement.

    XXXII, Tortoise and the King, pp.65–68

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXIII: Tortoise and Mr Fly, pp.68–71

London, 1929; XXXIII, Tortoise and Mr. Fly, pp.68–71.

  1. Discovery of repeated theft ends in punishment, exposure and departure.

    XXXIII, Tortoise and Mr. Fly, pp.68–71

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXIV: Erin and Erinomi (The Land- and Water-Elephants), pp.71–72

London, 1929; XXXIV, Erin and Erinomi (the Land- and Water-Elephants), pp.71–72.

  1. Two strength challenges conceal Tortoise’s trick until the rivals meet.

    XXXIV, Erin and Erinomi (the Land- and Water-Elephants), pp.71–72

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXV: The Three Deaths of Tortoise, pp.73–74

London, 1929; XXXV, The Three Deaths of Tortoise, pp.73–74.

  1. Three attempted killings all fail, after which his enemies leave him alone.

    XXXV, The Three Deaths of Tortoise, pp.73–74

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXVI: Tortoise and the Cock, pp.75–76

London, 1929; XXXVI, Tortoise and the Cock, pp.74–76.

  1. A deceptive warning suppresses the fowls’ alarm and facilitates egg theft.

    XXXVI, Tortoise and the Cock, pp.74–76

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXVII: Tortoise and Crab, pp.76–77

London, 1929; XXXVII, Tortoise and Crab, pp.76–77.

  1. Claims of invulnerability are disproved by a passing human.

    XXXVII, Tortoise and Crab, pp.76–77

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXVIII: Tortoise and the Pigeon, pp.77–80

London, 1929; XXXVIII, Tortoise and Pigeon, pp.77–80.

  1. Pigeon’s retaliation becomes a rescue after Tortoise faces execution.

    XXXVIII, Tortoise and Pigeon, pp.77–80

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XXXIX: Tortoise and the Whip Tree, pp.80–84

London, 1929; XXXIX, Tortoise and the Whip-tree, pp.80–84.

  1. Food concealment escalates into lethal betrayal and renewed flight.

    XXXIX, Tortoise and the Whip-tree, pp.80–84

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

Yoruba Legends — XL: Tortoise and the Rain, pp.84–87

London, 1929; XL, Tortoise and the Rain, pp.84–87.

  1. Failure to pay his weather partner ends in the drowning of his whole family.

    XL, Tortoise and the Rain, pp.84–87

Historical English retelling; this witness calls him Tortoise, not Ijapa. No named individual teller or original-language transcription identified. Author lifespan remains unverified; existing source-wide 24-word quotation budget is exhausted and no new exact text is copied. Full preface read; its colonial moral hierarchy is not adopted.

References

Sources supporting this profile. Linked pages have their own scope and editorial standards.

  1. Primary textYoruba LegendsResearch access: 2026-10-05
  2. Primary textYoruba Legends, XXXII: Tortoise and the KingResearch access: 2026-10-05
  3. Author’s stated collection contextOgumefu, prefaceResearch access: 2026-10-05
  4. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXIIResearch access: 2026-10-05
  5. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXIIIResearch access: 2026-10-05
  6. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXIVResearch access: 2026-10-05
  7. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXVResearch access: 2026-10-05
  8. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXVIResearch access: 2026-10-05
  9. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXVIIResearch access: 2026-10-05
  10. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXVIIIResearch access: 2026-10-05
  11. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XXXIXResearch access: 2026-10-05
  12. Historical English narrativeOgumefu, complete Tortoise tale XLResearch access: 2026-10-05

Image credits

A sourced illustration has not yet been added. This gap is included in the coverage record.

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